Presentation: Procedures
 
1. Survey
2. KWL chart
3. Preliminary Questionnaire
4. Presentation Outline
5. Presentation
6. Recapitulation
7. KWL chart revisited
8. Presentation Evaluation




Presentation: Content
 

Introduction: Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis
& Affect in Language Learning.
1. Why do people learn a second/foreign language?
2. Definitions of L2
3. Good L2 Learners
4. Definitions of Motivation
5. Sources of Motivation
6. Theories of Motivation
• Behavioral
• Cognitive
• Cognitive Developmental
• Achievement
• Psychoanalytic
• Humanistic
• Social Cognition
• Transpersonal / Spiritual
7. Models of Motivation
• Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model
• Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories
• Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model
• Gardner (1985)
• Deci & Ryan (1985): Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation
• Dornyei (1990)
• Crookes & Schmidt (1991)
• Oxford and Shearin (1994)
• Dornyei (1994)
• Wen (1997): Expectancy-value theories
• Dornyei (1998)
8. Factors that Affect Motivation
9. Instruments for Motivation Assessment
• The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985
• Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985)
• The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987).
• Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989)
• Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989)
• Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996)
• Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997)
• The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997)
10. Implications & Strategies for:
• Teachers + Homework
• Students
• Parents (soon)
• Schools (soon)
Conclusion & Recapitulation
References
Related Links

"The Creator gathered all of creation and said,
'I want to hide something from the humans until they are Ready for it.
It is the Realization that They Create their Own Reality.'
The eagle said, 'Give it to me, I will take it to the moon.'
The Creator said, 'No. One day they will go there and find it.'
The salmon said, 'I will hide it on the bottom of the ocean.'
'No. They will go there too.'
The buffalo said, 'I will bury it on the Great Plains.'
Then Grand-mother Mole, who lives in the breast of Mother Earth,
and who has no physical eyes but sees with spiritual eyes,
said, 'Put it Inside them.'
And the creator said, 'It is done.' "
Sioux Legend

What do we infer from this "Legend?"

1. Can we motivate our students if they are not "Ready" for motivation?
2. It is not only the teacher's / parents' job to motivate students, they need to assume responsibility for their own learning. => intrinsic motivation.
3. We can search everywhere for the most valuable thing for us, but if we only look with physical eyes, we won't find it.
4. If we help our students to look deep inside of them, they will find what they need: intrinsic motivation.
5. We have been everywhere but have ignored our inner selves.
6. We = people with both our Cognitive & Affective domains.
7. The Cognitive domain has been dealt with extensively; the Affective one, on the other hand, has been ignored for a long time; it needs to be considered: it is the second component in our personality and is extremely important.

 
As Rogers said while talking about mainstream educational institutions,
"They have focused so intently on the cognitive and have limited themselves so completely to 'educating from the neck up' , that this narrowness is resulting in serious social consequences." (1975:40-41)
.
8. We are the ones that create our own reality; what we are, what we want to be. We need to Realize that, to understand it, to acknowledge it. => set goals!

Motivation is like food for the brain. --Peter Davies
http://www.quotelady.com/subjects/motivation.html

Life takes on meaning when you become motivated, set goals and
charge after them in an unstoppable manner. -- Les Brown --
http://www.motivation123.com/quotations.html

Everybody needs motivation. Everybody needs to have a reason for action.
It is a sad fact that most people in this world underachieve because
they don't believe they are capable of fulfilling their dreams.
We, teachers, need to be committed to offering students the opportunity
to believe in themselves and achieve great things.

Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis
& Affect in Language Learning

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
consists of five main hypotheses:

 


1- Natural order hypothesis:	'We acquire the rules of language in a predictable order'
2- Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis:	'Adults have two distinctive ways of developing competences in second languages .. acquisition, that is by using language for real communication (natural environment) ... learning .. "knowing about" language'
3- Monitor Hypothesis:	'Conscious learning ... can only be used as a Monitor or an editor' (those who use the monitor a lot are slow learners => too conscious of what they say)
4- Input Hypothesis:	'Humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensible input"' (comprehensible input = data we hear around us; if we are relaxed, it goes directly to our heads)
5- Affective Filter Hypothesis:	'A mental block, caused by affective factors ... that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device'

In this presentation, we are only interested in the fifth hypothesis -- The Affective Filter Hypothesis-- which stipulates that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. (Krashen, 1985)

What we conclude then is that Affect plays a very important role in second language acquisition. It needs to be taken into consideration by L2 teachers so they make sure that the students' affective filter is low at all times in order for learning to take place.
Since this presentation is only related to Motivation, it will not cover the two other variables: self-confidence and anxiety.

Before we start by defining motivation, mentioning its sources and different theories/models and their implications, we believe it is worth asking one question that seems to guide all theorists' and researchers' work: "Why do people learn a second or foreign language? In other words, what is their Goal?

1- Why Do People Learn a
Second/Foreign Language?

This seems to be the key question in all kinds of research!
And of course, the reasons vary from a person to another.

• Fulfill school/university requirements
• Function and compete effectively in the global economy of today and the future
• Increase job opportunities and salary potential
• Develop intercultural sensitivity, increasing global understanding
• Improve English vocabulary and language proficiency in order to communicate with members of that language community.
• Improve critical and creative thinking skills
• Improve one's education
• Enhance travel and study abroad opportunities
• Enjoy great literary and musical masterpieces and films in their original language
• Improve likelihood of acceptance into university and graduate schools
• Increase understanding of people in own country
• Gain social power (prestige)
• Have a secret code
• Please one's parents
• Any other reason(s)?

2- Definitions of L2

It is crucial here to mention the difference between a Second and a Foreign language, which are both referred to as L2.
 
• People who are living in an English-speaking community/country are learning English as their SECOND language. "The learner of the second language is surrounded by stimulation, both visual and auditory, in the target language and thus has many motivational and instructional advantages." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)
.
• As for those who are not living in an English-speaking community/country, they are learning English as a FOREIGN language. "Foreign language learners are surrounded by their own native language and have to go out of their way to find stimulation and input in the target language. These students typically receive input in the new language only in the classroom and by artificial means, no matter how talented the teacher is." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

3- Good L2 Learners

Research has shown that the use of specific learning strategies & techniques while studying a second or foreign language leads to success. "The conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency. (Oxford, 1994)

Some of those strategies:

Rubin (1975) suggested that good L2 learners

are willing and accurate guessers;

have a strong drive to communicate;

are often uninhibited, and if they are, they combat inhibition by using positive self-talk, by extensive use of practicing in private, and by putting themselves in situations where they have to participate communicatively.

are willing to make mistakes;

focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing;

take advantage of all practice opportunities;

monitor their speech as well as that of others;

and pay attention to meaning.

One of the factors that influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second/foreign language is Motivation. More motivated students tend to use more strategies than less motivated students, hence, they tend to be more successful. (Oxford, 1990a)

4- Definitions of Motivation

However simple and easy the word "motivation" might appear, it is in fact very difficult to define. It seems to have been impossible for theorists to reach consensus on a single definition.

Here are a few that I have found in the literature:

According to the Webster's, to motivate means to provide with a motive, a need or desire that causes a person to act.

According to Gardner (1985), motivation is concerned with the question, "Why does an organism behave as it does?
Motivation involves 4 aspects:

1. A Goal
2. An Effort
3. A Desire to attain the goal
4. Favorable Attitude toward the activity in question.

Motivation is also defined as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goal-seeking acts (Ames & Ames, 1989). It is important because it determines the extent of the learner's active involvement and attitude toward learning. (Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa, 1998)

Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal.
Many researchers consider motivation as one of the main elements that determine success in developing a second or foreign language; it determines the extent of active, personal involvement in L2 learning. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation.
Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the tasks that you are involved in.
Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks for fear that there should be undesirable outcomes, eg. failing a subject, if tasks are not completed.
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/motivation/

What can we infer from all those definitions? What are the keywords that "Motivation" triggers in our minds?

MOTIVATION

.

*Goal *Effort *Desire

*Energy *Active involvement *Persistence

Patience, persistence and perspiration make an unbeatable combination for success.
--Napolean Hill --

5- Sources of Motivation

"Without knowing where the roots of motivation lie, how can teachers water those roots?"
(Oxford & Shearin, 1994- p.15)

Educational psychologists point to three major sources of motivation in learning (Fisher, 1990):

1. The learner’s natural interest:  intrinsic satisfaction
2. The teacher/institution/employment: extrinsic reward
3. Success in the task: combining satisfaction and reward

"While teachers and school systems have drawn on both of the first two sources of motivation,
  the third source is perhaps under-exploited in language teaching.  This is the simple fact of
  success, and the effect that this has on our view of what we do.  As human beings, we generally
  like what we do well, and are therefore more likely to do it again, and put in more effort . . .
In the classroom, this can mean that students who develop an image of
 themselves as ‘no good at English’ will simply avoid situations which tell them what they already
 know – that they aren’t any good at English.   Feelings of failure, particularly early on in a
 student’s school career, can therefore lead to a downward spiral of a self- perception of low
 ability – low motivation – low effort – low achievement – low motivation – low achievement, and
 so on."
Littlejohn, Andrew- November 2001
 ENGLISH TEACHING professional, Issue 19, March 2001

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.

Note: Conation = inclination to act purposefully; impulse. (Webster's)
"It is an intrinsic 'unrest' of the organism, almost the opposite of homeostasis.
A conscious tendency to act... a conscious striving." (English & English, 1958)

Note: Vicarious learning = the acquisition of knowledge or ability
  through indirect experience and observation, rather than direct experience or practice.
(Harcourt Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology)

The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation that have been studied. While INITIATION of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that PERSISTENCE  may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) or to conation and goal-orientation.

6- Theories of Motivation

A- Behavioral Theories

• Drive:.(Hull) urgent, basic, or instinctual need: a motivating physiological condition of an organism.

• Learned motives
1. Classical conditioning: (Pavlov) it states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
2. Instrumental/operant learning: (Skinner) it states that the primary factor is consequences: reinforcers are incentives to increase behavior and punishers are disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior.

(Stimulus => response => reward)

The desire of reward is one of the strongest incentives of human conduct; ... the best security for the fidelity of mankind is to make their interest coincide with their duty. --Alexander Hamilton (The Federalist Papers)
 

3. Observational/social learning: (Bandura) it suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of behavior.
.
• Incentive motivation:  it refers to goal-directed behavior (behavior that is "pulled" more than "pushed"). Seeking of rewards; avoidance of punishers.

Unlike drives, which were thought to be innate, incentives are usually considered to be learned.

Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement. The physical environment and actions of the teacher are of prime importance.

B- Cognitive Theories

• Expectancy-value/VIE theory: (Vroom, 1964) it proposes the following equation:
Motivation =
Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy)
Connection of Success and Reward-- material benefit (Instrumentality)
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valence, Value)
(VIE = Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy)
.
Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence or Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.
=> An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

• Attribution theory: (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.
 


	Internal	External
No Control	Ability	Luck
Control	Effort	Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior. If the person has an external attribution, then nothing the person can do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems occur.
.

• Cognitive dissonance theory: it was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if we can create the appropriate amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

According to the Webster's, cognitive dissonance is a psychological conflict resulting from incongruous beliefs and attitudes held simultaneously.

Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with intrinsic motivation (i.e., goals).

Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of a person's active search for meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus, motivation is internal.

C- Cognitive Developmental Theories

• Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget, 1972, 1990)

According to Piaget, children are motivated to develop their cognitive or mental abilities in a predictable set of stages:
1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy, 0 to 2 years). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood, 2-7 years). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates
3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence, 7-12 years). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood, 12 years –adult). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

<=> According to this model, fulfillment of the previous stage is necessary for advancement to the next stage.
In order for the child to be motivated, parents and teachers need to challenge his/her abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to motivate the child (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc).
 
• Zone of proximal development (Lev Vygotsky, 1978)

The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between the learner's actual developmental level and the level of potential development; it is the gap between what we are trying to teach and the current state of development in that area. If the gap is too large, instruction won’t be effective; too small and the learner won’t be extended, therefore teachers must have background knowledge of those they teach.
=> Scaffolded instruction involves an instructor or advanced peer working to support the development of the learner. The instructor should guide the learner in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner’s current skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn.
Students' needs, goals and interests must be the starting point if motivation is to occur.
For motivation and progress to exist, instructional input to students must be Challenging & Relevant. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

D- Achievement Motivation Theories

• Achievement motivation theories: (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974)

1. Need for achievement: individuals with a high need for achievement are interested in excellence for its own sake (rather for extrinsic rewards), tend to initiate achievement activities, work with heightened intensity on these tasks, and persist in the face of failure.
2. Fear of failure: The main drive to do well comes from avoiding a negative outcome rather than approaching a positive one.
3. Fear of success: "Nerd" vs. "cool" => Fear of losing social support (affiliation).

• Goal-theory: (Locke & Latham, 1994) it has differentiated three separate types of goals:

1. Mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills;
2. Performance/normative goals (also called ego-involvement goals) which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort;
3. Social goals which focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan & Maehr, 1995).

=> interpersonal skills- cooperative learning.

In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be very successful.

One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (more often associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.

E- Psychoanalytic Theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of fundamental influences:
 
• Freud (1990) suggested that all action or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression).

.
• Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that interpersonal and social relationships are fundamental. (=> cooperative learning)

• Adler (1989) proposed power (money => as a motivator. ex: lawyers)
• Jung (1953, 1997) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal meaningfulness.

F- Humanistic Theories
Humanistic "theories" of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like prescriptions rather than descriptions. They emphasise the "natural desire" of everyone to learn. They maintain that learners need to be empowered and to have control over the learning process. So the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a facilitator.
.
• Hierarchy of Human Needs: (Abraham Maslow, 1954). It is based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level.
The first four levels (Deficiency Needs) are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.



According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met.

The remaining four levels (Growth Needs) are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential;

 Self-actualized people are characterized by:

• Being problem-focused;
• Appreciating life;
• Showing concern about personal growth;
• Showing ability to have peak experiences.

8) Transcendence: to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

The essence of the hierarchy is the notion of “pre-potency”, which means that you are not going to be motivated by any higher-level needs until your lower-level ones have been satisfied.
.

• Hierarchy of Motivational Needs.(Alderfer, 1972)
 


Level of Need	Definition	Properties
Growth	Impels a person to make creative or productive effects on himself and his environment	Satisfied through using capabilities in engaging problems; creates a greater sense of wholeness and fullness as a human being
Relatedness	Involves relationships with significant others	Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings; acceptance, confirmation, understanding, and influence are elements
Existence	Includes all of the various forms of material and psychological desires	When divided among people one person's gain is another's loss if resources are limited

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion. Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering the introversion/extroversion dimension of personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how others value that membership.
 
 



A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies







Level	Introversion	Extroversion
Growth	Self-Actualization (development of competencies [knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character)	Transcendence (assisting in the development of others' competencies and character; relationships to the unknown, unknowable)
Other  (Relatedness)	Personal identification with group, significant others (Belongingness)	Value of person by group (Esteem)
Self  (Existence)	Physiological, biological (including basic emotional needs)	Connectedness,  security

.
• Self-Determination Theory:.(Deci & Ryan, 1985) it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy. It proposes that a person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding.
• Intrinsic motivation: the performance of a task for its own sake. It values rewards gained through the process of task completion, regardless of any external rewards.
• Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of some reward external to the completion of the task, such as good grades. It is believed to undermine intrinsic motivation; individuals will often lose their intrinsic interest in a task if the task is seen as a means to an end.

Deci identifies autonomy, competence, and relatedness as the three criteria necessary for the self-determination theory of motivation.

Fill the Heart, not just the Money Bag.

Humanists stress the need for personal growth. They place a great deal of emphasis on the total person, along with the related news of personal freedom, choice and self determination.
.

G- Social Cognition

• Self-efficacy: (Bandura, 1986, 1997) it highlights the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it. =>judging one's own ability and competence.
• Self-regulation: (Bandura, 1986, 1997) it highlights the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and modification or redirection.


H- Transpersonal / Spiritual Theories

Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings.

---

---

Theories of Motivation
Summary

7- Models of Motivation

A- Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model
After conducting a study that lasted more than ten years, they concluded that the learner's attitude toward the target language and the culture of the target-language-speaking community play a crucial role in language learning motivation. They introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation.

In the context of language learning, instrumental motivation refers to the learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as school/university requirement, employment or travel), whereas integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to integrate successfully into the target language community.
 

McDonough (1981)noted that there are two types of integrative motivation: “Assimilative motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group (give up one's own culture to assimilate into the target culture), and “Affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social contact with target language speakers.

Researchers challenged the social psychological approach claiming that it does not include the cognitive aspects of learning motivation (Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Dornyei, 1994), it is not practical and does not benefit L2 learning since it is too broad to help L2 educators generate practical guidelines (Dornyei, 1990).

B- Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories: Learners' motivation to acquire a second language is determined by:
• Effort
• Valence (perception of degree of attractiveness of goals/ its value)
• Expectancy (perception of the probability of attaining the goals)
• Ability (appraisal of their ability to achieve the goals).
• Instrumentality (connection of success and reward)


Questions the learner asks him/herself:

• Should I expend the energy or not? (effort)
• Does the outcome have a value? (valence)
• Are my actions likely to lead to success? (expectancy)
• Can I reach success? (ability)
• Will the outcome yield other positive results? (instrumentality)


C- Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model- Schumann examined the effects of personal variables such as relative status, attitude, integration, amount of time in the culture, size of the learning group, and cohesiveness of the group on adult language learning.

Schumann suggested three strategies taken by adult learners:

• Assimilation: total adoption of the target culture
• Rejection of target culture: preservation of the home culture (culture shock)
• Acculturation: learning to function in the new culture while maintaining one's own identity (adaptability).
He suggests that the degree of acculturation determines the level of second language aquisition. When an individual chooses to acculturate and experiences success, the motivation to learn the L2 increases. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)
In the EFL­unlike the ESL classroom, the situation is slightly different, in that the need for assimilation or acculturation is practically non-existent, especially at beginning levels and in languages such as French or German.
.

D- Gardner (1985):.Gardner explored four other motivational orientations:
• (a) reason for learning,
• (b) desire to attain the learning goal,
• (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and
• (d) effortful behavior.


Gardner (1985) describes core second language learning motivation as a construct composed of three characteristics:

• the attitudes towards learning a language (affect),
• the desire to learn the language (want) and
• motivational intensity (effort).


According to Gardner, a highly motivated individual will

• enjoy learning the language, and
• want to learn the language,
• strive to learn the language.


"An integratively oriented learner would likely have a stronger desire to learn the language, have more positive attitudes towards the learning situation, and be more likely to expend more effort in learning the language (Gardner, 1985).

The Gardnerian theory of SLA motivation is based on the definition of motivation as "the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity" (Gardner, 1985).

E- Deci & Ryan (1985): Self-Determination (autonomy) Theory: it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy. It proposes that a person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding.
• Intrinsic motivation: the performance of a task for its own sake. It values rewards gained through the process of task completion, regardless of any external rewards.
• Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of some reward external to the completion of the task, such as good grades. It is believed to undermine intrinsic motivation; individuals will often lose their intrinsic interest in a task if the task is seen as a means to an end.
<=> Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation, depending on whether the stimulus for the behavior originated outside or inside the individual.

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F- Dornyei (1990): He postulated a motivational construct consisting of:
• an Instrumental Motivational Subsystem
• an Integrative Motivational Subsystem
• Need for Achievement
• Attribution about past failures.
"Instrumental motivation might be more important than integrative motivation for foreign language learners."

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G- Crookes & Schmidt (1991): They identified four areas of SL motivation:
• the micro level,
• the classroom level,
• the syllabus level, and
• a level involving factors from outside the classroom.


The micro level involves the cognitive processing of L2 input.
At the micro level learner motivation is evidenced by the amount of attention given to the input.
The classroom level includes the techniques and activities employed in the classroom.
The syllabus level refers to the choice of content presented and can influence motivation by the level of curiosity and interest aroused in the students.
Finally, factors from outside the classroom involve informal interaction in the L2 and long term factors.

Crookes & Schmidt (1991) also suggested that motivation to learn a language has both internal and external features:

H- Oxford and Shearin (1994): They analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning:
 
* attitudes (i.e., sentiments toward the learning community and the target language)

* beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and anxiety)

* goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)

* involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in the language learning process)

* environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)

* personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning experience).

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I- Dornyei (1994):.His taxonomy of motivation is comprised of three levels:
• the Language Level,
• the Learner Level, and
• the Learning Situation Level.
.
1. The Language level is the most general level which focuses on "orientations and motives related to various aspects of the L2". The motives and orientations at this level determine the language studied and the most basic learning goals.
• integrative motivational subsystem
• instrumental motivational subsystem
.
2. The Learner level involves the influence of individual traits of language learners. Motivation is influenced at the Learner Level by the learner's
• need for achievement
• self-confidence (anxiety, perceived L2 competence, attributions, self-efficacy).
The Learner Level is concerned with internal, affective characteristics of the learner related to expectancy.
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3. Motivation at the Learning Situation Level is influenced by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic motives that are
• course specific (interest, relevance, expectancy, satisfaction),
• teacher specific (affiliative motive --please teacher, authority type --controlling vs. autonomy supporting, modelling, task presentation, feedback),
• group specific (goal-orientedness, reward system, group cohesiveness, classroom goal structure -- cooperative, competitive, individualistic.
.

J- Wen (1997): He incorporated expectancy-value theories and identified four motivational factors:
• motivation of instrumentality
• intrinsic motivation
• expected learning strategies and efforts
• passivity towards requirements.

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K- Dornyei (1998):.He suggests seven main motivational dimensions:
 
1. the affective/integrative dimension:
 
• integrative motives;
• affective motives;
• language attitudes;
• intrinsic motives/attitudes towards L2
• learning/enjoyment/interest;


2. the instrumental/pragmatic dimension;

3. the macro-context-related dimension (multi-cultural/ intergroup / ethnolinguistic relations);

4. the self-concept-related dimension (generalised/ trait-like personality factors);
 

• self-concept;
• confidence/self-efficacy;
• anxiety/inhibitions;
• success/failure-related (attributional) factor;
• expectancy;
• need for achievement;


5. the goal-related dimension;

6. the educational context-related dimension (learning/ classroom/ school environment);

7. the significant others-related dimension (parents, family, friends).

Dornyei
(Click on the picture to go to his web site)

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Models of Motivation
Summary

8- Factors that Affect Motivation
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"Motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)." (Brophy, 1987)

"To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn."
(Stipek, 1988)

http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed444381.html
http://www.caslt.org/research/affect.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/T0210820/Linda.html
http://members.fortunecity.com/nadabs/prophecy.html
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no1/p8.htm (Motivating Learners At South Korean Universities) by Janet S. Niederhauser)

9- Instruments for Motivation Assessment:

• The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985

• Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985)

To measure intensity of motivation.

• The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987). It requires students to rate 36 ARCS-related statements in relation to the instructional materials they have just used.

• Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989)

To measure language learning strategies.

• Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989)

A 47-item ARCS-based instrument for evaluating the motivational characteristics of an instructor's classroom delivery.
 
• Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996)

To measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

• Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997)

• The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997)

It is an instrument used for designing and assessing the motivational quality of World Wide Web sites.

10- Implications & Strategies for L2 Learners' Motivation:

Check Matching Exercise

Teachers:

The greatest motivational act one person can do for another is to listen.--Roy E. Moody

Dornyei (1994) suggests

1. developing students' self-efficacy,
2. decreasing their anxiety,
3. promoting motivation-enhancing attributions,
4. encouraging students to set attainable sub-goals, and
5. increasing the attractiveness of course content.

 Dornyei (1998:131) suggests
"Ten Commandments for Motivating Language Learners”

1. Set a personal example with your own behavior.
2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
3. Present the task properly.
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.
5. Increase the learner's linguistic self-confidence.
6. Make the language classes interesting.
7. Promote learner autonomy.
8. Personalize the learning process.
9. Increase the learners' goal-orientedness.
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Oxford & Shearin (1996:139) also offer Practical Suggestions for Teachers:

1. Teachers can identify why students are studying the new language.

• Teachers can find out actual motivations (motivation survey).
• Information on motivation can be passed on to the next class in a portfolio.
• Teachers can determine which parts of L2 learning are especially valuable for the students.

2. Teachers can help shape students' beliefs about success and failure in L2 learning.
 

• Students can learn to have realistic but challenging goals.
• Teachers can learn to accept diversity in the way students establish and meet their goals, based on differences in learning styles.

3. Teachers can help students improve motivation by showing that L2 learning can be an exciting mental challenge, a career enhancer, a vehicle to cultural awareness and friendship and a key to world peace.

4. Teachers can make the L2 classroom a welcoming, positive place where psychological needs are met and where language anxiety is kept to a minimum.

5. Teachers can urge students to develop their own intrinsic rewards through positive self-talk, guided self-evaluation, and mastery of specific goals, rather than comparison with other students. Teachers can thus promote a sense of greater self-efficacy, increasing motivation to continue learning the L2.

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Keller (1983).He presents an instructional design model for motivation that is based upon a number of other theories. His model suggests a design strategy that encompasses four components of motivation:

1. arousing interest in the topic/ Attention,
2. creating Relevance to students' lives,
3. developing an expectancy of success and feelings of being in control / Confidence,
4. producing Satisfaction in the outcome through intrinsic/extrinsic rewards.

Keller (1987).The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a well-known and widely applied model of instructional design. Simple, yet powerful, the ARCS Model is rooted in a number of motivational theories and concepts, (see Keller, 1983) most notably expectancy-value theory (e.g. Vroom, 1964; Porter and Lawler, 1968).

In expectancy-value theory, "effort" is identified as the major measurable motivational outcome. For "effort" to occur, two necessary prerequisites are specified _ (1) the person must value the task and (2) the person must believe he or she can succeed at the task. Therefore, in an instructional situation, the learning task needs to be presented in a way that is engaging and meaningful to the student, and in a way that promotes positive expectations for the successful achievement of learning objectives.

The ARCS Model identifies four essential strategy components for motivating instruction:
 

1. [A]ttention strategies for arousing and sustaining curiosity and interest;
2. [R]elevance strategies that link to learners' needs, interests, and motives;
3. [C]onfidence strategies that help students develop a positive expectation for successful achievement; and
4. [S]atisfaction strategies that provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement for effort (Keller, 1983).


Keller (1987) breaks each of the four ARCS components down into three strategy sub-components. The strategy sub-components and instructionally relevant examples are shown below.


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Attention

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1. Perceptual Arousal: provide novelty, surprise, incongruity or uncertainty. Ex. The teacher places a sealed box covered with question marks on a table in front of the class.
2. Inquiry Arousal: stimulate curiosity by posing questions or problems to solve. Ex. The teacher presents a scenario of a problem situation and asks the class to brainstorm possible solutions based on what they have learned in the lesson.
3. Variability: incorporate a range of methods and media to meet students' varying needs. Ex. After displaying and reviewing each step in the process on the overhead projector, the teacher divides the class into teams and assigns each team a set of practice problems.

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Relevance

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1. Goal Orientation: present the objectives and useful purpose of the instruction and specific methods for successful achievement. Ex. The teacher explains the objectives of the lesson.
2. Motive Matching: match objectives to student needs and motives. Ex. The teacher allows the students to present their projects in writing or orally to accommodate different learning needs and styles.
3. Familiarity: present content in ways that are understandable and that are related to the learners' experience and values. Ex. The teacher asks the students to provide examples from their own experiences for the concept presented in class.

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Confidence

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1. Learning Requirements: inform students about learning and performance requirements and assessment criteria. Ex. The teacher provides students with a list of assessment criteria for their research projects and circulates examples of exemplary projects from past years.
2. Success Opportunities: provide challenging and meaningful opportunities for successful learning. Ex. The teacher allows the students to practice extracting and summarizing information from various sources and then provides feedback before the students begin their research projects.
3. Personal Responsibility: link learning success to students' personal effort and ability. Ex. The teacher provides written feedback on the quality of the students' performance and acknowledges the students' dedication and hard work.

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Satisfaction

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1. Intrinsic Reinforcement: encourage and support intrinsic enjoyment of the learning experience. Ex. The teacher invites former students to provide testimonials on how learning these skills helped them with subsequent homework and class projects.
2. Extrinsic Rewards: provide positive reinforcement and motivational feedback. Ex. The teacher awards certificates to students as they master the complete set of skills.
3. Equity: maintain consistent standards and consequences for success. Ex. After the term project has been completed, the teacher provides evaluative feedback using the criteria described in class.

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There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. (Huitt, 2001)
 
 

Intrinsic	Extrinsic
Explain or show why learning a particular content or skill is important Create and/or maintain curiosity Provide a variety of activities and sensory stimulations Provide games and simulations Set goals for learning Relate learning to student needs Help student develop plan of action	Provide clear expectations Give corrective feedback Provide valuable rewards Make rewards available

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Some teaching strategies that can be used to foster motivation and provide better transfer opportunities of language skills include the following: (Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa, 1998)